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Exercise: A New Link Between Gut Bacteria and Heart Health

Much previous research has been devoted to the myriad of health benefits provided by the microbes that thrive in our bellies. These microbes form a colony within the body known as a microbiome, which consists of trillions of microbes that flourish in the nose, esophagus, mouth and in the gastrointestinal tract. These microbes actually help us by assisting the body’s immune response, helping to encourage the use of vitamins and nutrients and even helping to power the brain. In fact, we’re only beginning to unravel the many ways in which these microbes help our bodies function.

These beneficial microbes all function differently, depending on their location in the body, and their performance may even vary from person to person. From genetics to environmental factors, there are many reasons that these microbes will function differently between individuals. While a microbiome may not react exactly the same in every person, we do know that this community of microbes works to prevent the conditions that cause atherosclerosis.

When an individual develops atherosclerosis, plaque and other foreign substances accumulate in the arteries, inhibiting blood flow. The decreased blood flow is the root cause of many heart conditions, including heart attacks. However, a diverse microbiome can promote the growth of healthy bacteria that aid blood flow, while also interfering with the production of the harmful bacteria that causes inflammation of the blood vessels. Now, new research sheds light on exactly how gut bacteria and heart health are related and which may also explain why diet and exercise are so important to our overall health.

New Research Explores the Link Between Gut Bacteria and Heart Health

A recent study, conducted at the Department of Kinesiology at the San Francisco State University in California, took earlier research on gut bacteria and heart health a step further. The findings were published for the first time in the International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism. Ryan Durk and his team wanted to see how physical fitness and gut bacteria were related, so they studied 20 men and 17 women. Looking at how physical fitness affected cardiovascular health, the team subjected the test group to regular treadmill workouts. Additionally, they took measurements of each individual’s body fat, using a “Bod Pod” device. The machine uses air displacement plethysmography to compare fat mass to lean muscle mass in an individual.

Other factors that helped Durk’s team obtain their findings consisted of food diaries and stool samples from each participant. The stool samples were especially helpful in determining gut health, because the ratio of firmicutes to bacteroides is considered a reliable method of measurement. Typically, an imbalance between these two types of bacteria indicates obesity, irritable bowel syndrome and other medical conditions relating to gastrointestinal health.

When comparing all of the factors, the researchers discovered that those with a more active level of cardiovascular fitness also had higher firmicute to bacteroide ratios. The higher levels of firmicute were found to prevent the spread of harmful bacteria from the gut to other parts of the body. Mr. Durk added that the lining of the intestine was strengthened by the increased firmicutes, which helped to prevent the occurrence of leaky gut syndrome.

Two More Ways a Healthy Gut Improves Heart Health

Aside from the new connection linking exercise to gut health and heart health, a healthy balance of microflora in the digestive tract has been shown to support a healthy cardiovascular system in other ways.

Arterial Health

The European Heart Journal published the findings of a collaborative study conducted between the University of Nottingham and King’s College London. They found that poorer diversity in gut bacteria in women caused more prominent hardening of the arteries. In addition to finding that gut bacteria diversity plays a part in heart health, the research team also found that changing one’s diet can significantly alter that balance. While the researchers caution against concluding that lower gut bacteria causes cardiovascular disease, they did affirm that there is an association between the two factors.

Some Gut Bacteria Increase the Risks of Heart Attack and Stroke

The relationship between gut bacteria and heart health isn’t always a positive one. Some bacteria in the stomach actually increase the risk of having a stroke or a heart attack, according to Dr. Elizabeth Klodas. In addition to her work as a cardiologist, Dr. Klodas is the editor-in-chief of CardioSmart.org, which is a patient educational periodical published by the American College of Cardiology.

Dr. Klodas posits that some gut bacteria convert the choline in red meat and eggs into trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO). The compound has been linked to atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ACVD), which can cause vascular events to occur. She points out that TMAO is responsible for a higher likelihood of blood clots forming in the arteries. When this does occur, experiencing a heart attack or stroke is the most probable outcome.
In supporting her statements, Dr. Klodas referred to a study of more than 2,000 patients. She said, even after other risk factors had been calculated, the higher TMAO counts still presented an increased risk of ACVD and blood clotting. She added that those with higher TMAO counts were four times more likely to die from a vascular event within the next five years.

When examining the way gut bacteria interact with the rest of the body, we begin to understand why the foods we eat are so important. By eating healthier natural foods, we can give our digestive system the tools it needs to strengthen the rest of the body. We’ve always known that eating right makes us healthier, but now we’re beginning to understand why it’s so beneficial to our bodies.

New Study Suggests Capsaicin Fights Obesity

Jul 25 by Ewcopywriting Leave a Comment

A new study has led researchers at the University of Wyoming School of Pharmacy to develop a new treatment for eliminating obesity in mice. The main ingredient in the new treatment is capsaicin, which is the compound that gives chili peppers their spiciness. When ingested, capsaicin has a positive effect on the peripheral nervous system, which is that part of the nervous system found outside of the brain and spinal cord. It has been known that capsaicin can help relieve minor pain, and previous research has focused on the effects of capsaicin on symptoms of neuropathic diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis.

New research evaluating the benefits of capsaicin looked at how obesity was affected by the compound. The team, led by Dr. Baskaran Thyagarajan, found that a drug derived from capsaicin, which was designed to release the compound into the bloodstream gradually over a 24-hour period, shows promise for fighting obesity in lab mice. After testing the new drug, which is called metabocin, on mice with successful results, the research team presented their findings at the Society for the Study of Ingestive Behavior yearly meeting. Their premise for developing metabocin is that capsaicin can activate TRPV1 receptors, which are most commonly found in fat cells. The researchers believed that activating those receptors could cause adipocytes, the white fat cells in the body, to actually burn calories instead of storing them as excess fat.

Following this discovery, Dr. Thyagarajan and his team continued their research to uncover any adverse side effects that might be caused by long-term use of the drug. While they couldn’t find any negative side effects, the researchers did note that the cholesterol and blood sugar levels in the mice were considerably improved. Additionally, the mice had better insulin response times and fewer symptoms of fatty liver disease. The researchers continued to observe the mice for eight months of regular use of the drug and, while adverse side effects were not noted, they did continue to lose weight throughout the period of the study. Dr. Thyagarajan says the research suggests that metabocin is both safe and effective, adding that the mice were able to tolerate the drug well.

Dr. Thyagarajan did caution people not to take this research as a sign that they should begin eating more chili peppers. He points out that chili peppers can have an unsettling effect on the digestive system and may make some people feel sick. Metabocin contains capsaicin extract, allowing individuals to benefit from its effects in a more easily digested form. The research team hopes to begin clinical trials on humans in the near future.

Study Claims Capsaicin May Benefit Breast Cancer

Looking at research on the breast cancer front, researchers have found that there are various types of the disease and that each one responds differently to treatment. One type that doesn’t respond well to most treatments is termed “triple-negative” breast cancer. Studies into capsaicin have discovered that the chili pepper compound may hold the key to treating this type of cancer more effectively. Triple-negative breast cancer gets its name from the fact that it tests negative for epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) in addition to testing negative for progesterone and estrogen.

In treating triple-negative breast cancer, the only intervention that has been found to have any effect at all is chemotherapy. Recent research into the effects of capsaicin on triple-negative breast cancer conducted at the Ruhr University in Bochum, Germany suggest there may soon be an alternative. Dr. Hanns Hatt and Dr. Lea Weber led the team, which included representatives from various facilities throughout Germany, including those from the Herz-Jesu-Krankenhaus hospital in Dernbach, the Centre of Genomics in Cologne, and Augusta clinics throughout Bochum.

The scientists discovered that one of the effects the compound has on TRPV1 receptors is to initiate cancer cell death. It can also prevent the growth of some types of cancer, including pancreatic and colon cancer. It does this through the olfactory senses, which are activated by the spicy nature of chili peppers. When a chili pepper is ingested, smell molecules lining the nose are activated, which, in turn, caused the activation of TRPV1 receptors. Once the TRPV1 receptors were activated, cancer cells began to gradually die off. The researchers also observed that tumor cells were killed off in larger quantities and that they were not able to move throughout the body as efficiently. The scientists believe this effect may reduce the likelihood of the cells metastasizing.

While increasing the amount of chili peppers one eats is not necessarily going to work to fight triple-negative breast cancer, the Ruhr University study indicates that concentrated doses in medicinal form may be more beneficial. The key to developing an effective medication is in finding a drug that can activate the TRPV1 receptors without causing harmful side effects in humans. While capsaicin needs to be studied further for its benefits, this compound may offer better alternatives to existing treatments for both obesity and breast cancer in the future.

Weight Loss: Brain Structure Could Predict Dieting Success or Failure

Jul 23 by Ewcopywriting Leave a Comment

People who give in to their cravings are often seen as lacking willpower, with the inability to easily tame impulses commonly viewed as a character flaw, but this line of thinking assumes we all have the same ability to exercise self-control, and according to new research, that may not be the case. The results of a new study published in The Journal of Neuroscience, show that the grey matter volume in two particular brain regions serves as a predictor as to whether a person will reach for more a healthy or more unwholesome choice, suggesting that our self-control is strongly tied to genetics.

The Neuroeconomics of Diet: “Brain Scans and Dietary Plans”

According to models in the growing field of neuroeconomics, which studies the underlying brain functions behind the decision-making process, how we choose the food we eat depends on two mechanisms. First, we value the food item based on attributes like healthfulness and taste. Then, we choose the food with the highest overall value after we consider the importance or weight of each attribute. In order to investigate whether brain structure could predict whether a person would make a healthier choice during this process, researchers examined the dietary choices and brain imaging data of participants during the decision-making process over the course of four experiments.

Throughout the study, researchers observed the brain images and decision-making of a total of 123 participants, 45 men and 78 women. In the first three experiments, the participants were placed inside of an fMRI scanner and shown pictures of food items ranging from items such as Brussels sprouts to cookies. They were asked how much they wanted each food, with answers ranging from a strong yes to a strong no, and told to make their choice based on either what their usual preference would be, by focusing on the palatability of the food or by considering its healthfulness.

In the fourth experiment, the researchers did not supply any specific decision-making criteria. The participants were instructed to either choose to “indulge” or “distance” themselves from the food based on their taste-based cravings or to simply choose as they normally would. The participants were asked to choose the price point they would pay to eat the food at the end of the experiment, with amounts ranging from $0.00 to $2.50. The outcomes of the fourth trial were used to confirm the other experiments.

Participants fasted for four hours before the trials began. Before starting, they were informed that at the end of the study, they would be able to eat one of the items from the study, which would be chosen at random from all the foods rated. If by chance the randomly selected item was one that the participant had rated as not wanting, then they would not receive it. At the end of the study, the participants even paid the self-chosen prices for the food they received.

Throughout the trials, grey matter volume in two particular brain regions could serve as a predictor for self-control. The results of their study show for the first time that differences in the neuroanatomy of these regions can influence a person’s ability to make wise eating choices.

Researchers Find Brain Structure May Predict Dieting Success or Failure

The team analyzed the participants’ brain imaging data along with their food choices and found that the grey matter volume in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) and ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) could predict each participant’s ability to focus on health and not think about taste when told to do so. Those with denser grey matter volume in these two regions displayed more dietary self-control and were more likely to make the healthier choice.

According to the authors of the study, there is some debate among neuroscientists regarding which of these regions is the one that is primarily responsible for self-control. Widely linked to cognition, memory and emotional regulation, many experts believe that the dlPFC only actually comes in to play when attempts to resist impulses are successful. Generally, the vmPFC region is thought to be more heavily involved in decision-making and the process of valuation.

“Pinning down how the two regions interact to influence self-control was outside the scope of our study. It is a matter for future researchers to investigate. However, my personal theory, based on past research findings using functional rather than structural brain imaging techniques, is that the vmPFC is involved in the integration of various attributes such as healthiness and tastiness into a holistic value signal, and the dlPFC implements the self-control,” said Hilke Plassmann, INSEAD Chaired Professor of Decision Neuroscience and co-author of the study.

Neuroplasticity: Neurofeedback Therapies for Obesity and Eating Disorders

While we may have a genetic predisposition to make certain choices, the authors note that the structure of the brain can be changed based on use and other circumstances. According to the authors, grey matter is “like a muscle that can be developed with exercise.”

“Our findings do not imply that there are biologically predetermined limits on people’s self-control. The structure of brain regions can change based on use as well as a host of other circumstances, an adaptive capacity known as ‘neuroplasticity’,” said Plassmann.

The researchers believe that neurofeedback exercise techniques could be used as a potential therapy for those looking to improve eating habits. “In the future, we may be able to come up with brain-based interventions, so that you can change the grey matter density in these regions,” says Plassmann.

Furthermore, the team’s research could be a first step in better assessing and treating eating disorders, such as anorexia nervosa and binge eating, which are linked to dysfunctional self-control. The team’s findings could also serve as a potential method for diagnosing at-risk patients.

“It is not always very clear how to assess these disorders. The field of psychiatry is currently searching for more biological markers in addition to their existing methods. A certain pattern of brain structure could potentially be one of those markers,” said Plassmann.

Study co-author Liane Schmidt adds, “we can also use this to characterize people who might be at risk for eating disorders. Diagnosing cases of obesity, for example, is usually straightforward. But structural brain scans could potentially help to prevent obesity by identifying overweight people whose underdeveloped self-control puts them at risk of becoming obese later in life.”

Exploring the Link Between Low Vitamin D and Lung Disease

Jul 20 by Ewcopywriting Leave a Comment

A study conducted at Johns Hopkins University looked at 10 decade’s worth of medical records for more than 6,000 patients to determine how vitamin D was related to instances of interstitial lung disease (ILD). While the group of ILD diseases are rare, they can have devastating effects on people who contract one of these conditions. For that reason, researchers wanted to identify contributing causes that might affect the development of an interstitial lung disease.

In interstitial lung disease, or ILD, inflammation and scarring of the lungs causes a range of medical conditions that inhibit the functioning of the respiratory system. Individuals with ILD often develop irreversible lung damage that worsens over time and can have disabling effects on the individual. Exposure to environmental causes, such as coal dust or asbestos, and internal factors, such as the development of autoimmune diseases and infections, can trigger the more than 200,000 annual cases. Once diagnosed, these patients typically don’t survive for more than five years.

The Johns Hopkins study, which was published in the June 19 edition of Journal of Nutrition, found that low vitamin D levels may play a role in ILD. More research is needed to determine if a vitamin D deficiency causes ILD or simply makes one more susceptible to developing an interstitial lung disease. Erin Michos, M.D., M.H.S., who works at Johns Hopkins as an associate professor of medicine, says there was also evidence to suggest illnesses like COPD and asthma may also be affected by vitamin D levels. Part of the reason for this may be related to the anti-inflammatory effects that the nutrient has on the body. Additionally, vitamin D helps regulate the immune system, which interstitial lung diseases throw into chaos. Researchers hope to continue their work to learn how vitamin D supplements, increased sun exposure and ingesting other natural sources of vitamin D play a part in preventing ILD.

Deficient Vitamin D Levels May Also Play a Role in Obesity

In the Netherlands, another study conducted jointly by researchers at VU University Medical Center and Leiden University Medical Center examined how vitamin D deficiencies affected obesity. They looked at the different types of fat located in various parts of the body to see how vitamin D levels influenced weight gain. In addition to total body fat, the research team, led by Rachida Rafiq, focused on belly fat, fat accumulation around the body’s organs, and liver fat.

As a part of the study, the researchers isolated incidences of alcohol consumption, chronic diseases and the variations of physical activity in each subject. Once results were adjusted for these variables, the study revealed that women with low vitamin D levels had higher instances of total body fat and belly fat. Conversely, men experiencing low levels of vitamin D more often developed higher instances of liver fat and abdominal fat. It was concluded that the existence of belly fat, or abdominal fat, was directly related to lower vitamin D levels in the blood. Rachida Rafiq added that the results of the study indicates that obese individuals should keep an eye on their vitamin D levels and do what they can to increase them.

Giving Your Body More Vitamin D

If the link between vitamin D and lung disease tells us anything, it’s that everyone needs to ensure that they’re getting enough of the nutrient. Even if you’re not an obese individual, deficient vitamin D levels can lead to a range of illnesses, such as interstitial lung disease. There may be links to other diseases, which researchers have yet to discover.

Although vitamin D is most prominently found in the sun’s rays, the risks of skin cancer may keep you from exploring that source too frequently. Instead, wild caught fish provide the second best source of vitamin D. In a 3 ounce salmon, you can benefit from a total of 425 IU of vitamin D, while a mackerel of the same size provides 547 IU. Another good source of vitamin D is beef or calf liver, which contains about 42 IU in each 3 oz. serving.

There are many more sources of vitamin D that can help you add the nutrient to your system naturally. Egg yolks, canned fish, such as tuna and sardines and shiitake mushrooms are also good ways to introduce more vitamin D into your system. You can also add more dairy products to your diet, including low-fat milk, almond milk, and yogurt.

While adding more vitamin D to your diet or taking supplements can’t guarantee you won’t be affected by ILD or obesity, ensuring you get enough is important to your overall health. By keeping an eye on the vitamin D levels in your body, you can ensure your body is getting what it needs to remain healthy. This can help you reduce the risk of developing many diseases by strengthening your immune system and reducing internal inflammation.

Recent Study Supports Using Multivitamins for Heart Health

Jul 18 by Ewcopywriting Leave a Comment

For heart patients who don’t already take statins, a new study reveals there are great benefits in taking multivitamins for heart health.

The Importance of Multivitamins for Heart Health

Looking at how multivitamins affect heart health, an expansive study evaluated patients at 134 different sites throughout North America. The study’s initial purpose was to examine how effective and safe EDTA chelation is for patients with a history of heart disease or those with coronary artery disease. Typically, patients administered EDTA chelation through an alternative medicine caregiver also take high doses of multivitamins. Considering this factor, researchers also wanted to see what role, if any, those multivitamins played in affecting heart health.

Chelation is the process of binding molecules together and withdrawing them from the body. Even though there haven’t been any previous studies on this procedure’s effectiveness or safety, its use has risen considerably in recent years. Between 2002 and 2007, the use of this process has grown by nearly 68 percent in the United States. More than 111,000 people had undergone the treatment by 2007.

For the study, researchers wanted to obtain more detailed results, so they divided patients into four groups:

those taking Chelation in addition to multivitamins
those taking Chelation, but with placebo multivitamins
those taking placebo Chelation, but with real multivitamins
those taking placebo Chelation and placebo supplements

An additional factor that contributed to determining the benefits of multivitamins for heart health had to do with whether patients were taking statins at the time of the study. Researchers noted that 73 percent of patients were taking statins, while 27 percent had not been prescribed any statins. The study found that those individuals taking statins experienced no changes from taking the multivitamin supplements. Conversely, the 27 percent who were not taking statins did exhibit beneficial changes, regardless of whether they were receiving actual chelation therapy or the placebo replacement.

Patients taking high doses of multivitamins exhibited far fewer incidences of:

all heart-related deaths
angina hospitalizations
coronary artery bypass procedures
heart attacks
strokes

The Quality of Multivitamin Supplements Also Plays a Role

In examining the benefits of multivitamins for heart health, researchers also found that the type of multivitamin administered also played a role. The same benefits were not achieved by those individuals taking over-the-counter or generic multivitamins as those taking a high-quality multivitamin supplement. For this reason, consumers should look for vitamin manufacturers who take an interest in ensuring their products are manufactured with a dedication to the latest multivitamin research and ingredient quality.

The best multivitamins for heart health come from those manufacturers who enlist outside certification and testing services. For manufacturers, this gives their brand a higher degree of credibility, which may become more important as the results of this study become more widely known.

Another Study Reveals Why Multivitamins are so Helpful

Bruce Ames is a biochemist and author of Triage Theory of Aging, which was released in 2006. In looking at how micronutrient levels affect the body, he observed that a shortage of nutrients forced the body to send those compounds to where they were needed most, depriving other parts of the body. For instance, a calcium deficiency would compel the body to send the existing calcium from the bones to the blood stream, in order to prevent metabolic acidosis. When that deficiency is prolonged, the absence of calcium in the bones precipitates bone loss.

He concluded that the key to resolving this condition is to provide a greater balance of vitamins and nutrients to the body. A good quality multivitamin taken regularly can restore balance to the body’s metabolism and ensure it’s getting all of the nutrients it needs and in the quantities required for normal functioning. As a lack of proper nutrient levels can cause degenerative illnesses and diseases to develop in deprived systems, this may be the key to reducing the risks of developing conditions like heart disease or osteoporosis.

The results of these studies point to the importance of multivitamins for heart health, but only where patients aren’t also taking statins and where the supplement is of a high quality. As future studies explore this premise further, practices for treating heart disease may change to incorporate an emphasis on taking high doses of multivitamins. In addition to helping avoid heart risks, multivitamins may also strengthen other systems throughout the body.

Mood-Boosting Neurotransmitter Serotonin Enhances Learning Speed

Jul 12 by Ewcopywriting Leave a Comment

According to new data from the Champalimaud Centre for the Unknown (CCU) and University College London (UCL), the neurotransmitter serotonin plays a vital role in the learning process, helping to speed learning. Researchers believe this explains why selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) antidepressants are more effective when combined with cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). Their findings were recently published in the journal Nature Communications.

The Different Roles of Serotonin

Serotonin, also known as 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), is one of the major chemicals that nerves use for communication. It impacts every part of our bodies, but there is still much about the neurotransmitter and its many roles that is relatively unknown. Neuroscientists have long pursued an integrated theory as to exactly what serotonin does within the body and brain, but pinning down all of serotonin’s functions is a challenge.

Most commonly associated with mood regulation, we know that serotonin plays a variety of other key roles throughout the body. Around 90 percent of the body’s serotonin is actually located within the gastrointestinal tract, where it helps to regulate intestinal motility. Serotonin is also stored within blood platelets, acting as a vasoconstrictor during the clotting process. The rest of the body’s serotonin is synthesized by the central nervous system, where it aids in the regulation of appetite, behavior, mood, and sleep.

Previous research has linked serotonin with memory and neuroplasticity. This newest study supports those findings and provides further insight into serotonin’s effect on cognitive function.

Serotonin Enhances Learning Speed

In this latest study on the well-known neurotransmitter, researchers conducted a series of mice trials in which they observed that when serotonin neurons were artificially activated via light, an emerging technique referred to as optogenetics, the mice were quicker to adapt their behavior.

According to Zach Mainen, one of the study’s lead authors, “the study found that serotonin enhances the speed of learning. When serotonin neurons were activated artificially, using light, it made mice quicker to adapt their behavior in a situation that required such flexibility. That is, they gave more weight to new information and therefore changed their minds more rapidly when these neurons were active.”

To arrive at this conclusion, the researchers observed how mice reacted in a basic learning task where the goal was for the mice to get water from one of two sources. According to study co-author Madalena Fonseca of the CCU, “animals were placed in a chamber where they had to poke either a water-dispenser on their left side or one on their right, which, with a certain probability, would then dispense water, or not.”

The amount of water released and which dispenser it was released from was randomized so that the mice would need to continually adapt their strategy. In some of the trials, the researchers used the optogenetics technique to artificially boost serotonin release. Analyzing the data using a computational model developed by study co-author Kiyohito Iigaya of UCL, the team observed that the mice seemed to exhibit two distinct approaches to decision making depending on how quickly they made their choice.

Working Memory and Long-Term Memory: Two Different Learning Strategies

According to Iigaya, “To our surprise, we found that animals’ choice behavior was generated from two distinctive decision systems. On most trials, choice was driven by a ‘fast system’, where the animals followed a win-stay-lose-switch strategy. But on a small number of the trials, we found that this simple strategy didn’t explain the animals’ choices at all.”

It was this smaller subset of trials that revealed serotonin’s effect on the decision-making process. “Serotonin is always enhancing learning from reward, but this effect is only apparent on a subset of the animals’ choices,” said CCU co-author Masayoshi Murakami.

In the faster system, the mice relied on their working or short-term memory. However, when the interval between trials was longer, the mice utilized their long-term memory of all previous trials. According to their data, serotonin boosted learning from the history of all past rewards, but only affected the choices that were made during these longer intervals.

Iigaya explains, “on these trials, we instead found that animals followed their ‘slow system,’ in which it was the reward history over many trials, and not only the most recent trials, that affected their choices. Moreover, serotonin affected only these latter choices, in which the animal was following the slow system.”

The team believes that their findings may explain why SSRIs, which is a type of antidepressant that increases serotonin levels, is significantly more effective when combined with cognitive behavioral therapy, which is a form of therapy. The authors state, “our results suggest that serotonin boosts [brain] plasticity by influencing the rate of learning. This resonates, for instance, with the fact that treatment with an SSRI can be more effective when combined with so-called cognitive behavioral therapy, which encourages the breaking of habits in patients.